Alessandra Silveira [Editor of this blog, Coordinator of Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence “Digital Citizenship and Technological Sustainability” (CitDig), UMinho]
The brand new world (dis)order and the European Defence Union
(on three years because the invasion of Ukraine)
On 24 February 2022, whereas the planet was nonetheless rising from the depths of the pandemic, barbarity returned to the European continent – all recorded by drones and satellites in a traditional battle perpetrated amid the digital age. The return of battle to the European continent urges us to re-read Hannah Arendt, as a result of totalitarian options are nonetheless tantalisingly tempting. [1] Arendt explains that nowhere else does Fortune – good or dangerous – play such a decisive position in human affairs as on the battlefield. That’s the reason violence in battle carries with it a further factor of arbitrariness.[2]
In “The Origins of Totalitarianism” from 1951, Arendt traces the subterranean parts that crystallised the astonishing singularity of the totalitarianisms of the twentieth century – and their systematic try and make human beings superfluous. The identical perplexity that arises earlier than the terrifying photographs of Bucha or Mariupol – however the place does this horror come from? – led Arendt to coin the expression “the banality of evil”. With this idea, she wished to elucidate that somebody doesn’t must be a monster to perpetrate an evil act – and that individuals can commit it for banal causes, with out ever having determined whether or not to be good or dangerous, however merely due to their lack of ability to suppose, to place themselves within the place of the victims, to train a broad mentality or the Kantian universalisation check.[3]
In any case, as Edgar Morin explains, quoting Walter Benjamin, there is no such thing as a signal or act of civilisation that isn’t on the identical time an act of barbarity – which leads Morin to conclude that barbarity is an ingredient of civilisation that we are able to by no means suppress. Not solely is it a component of civilisation, it’s an integral a part of it – and European historical past exhibits this, from the Roman Empire to the colonial wars of the twentieth century.[4]
And but we had been perplexed by Russia’s large-scale invasion of Ukraine as a result of we had been dwelling at a time when European barbarism was in sharp decline. And the European cultural antidotes that performed a task on this regression appeared to have the ability to outline Europe: the humanism generated through the Renaissance from the Greco-Latin heritage; the crucial and self-critical rationality that underpins the arrival of science; the universalism of the Enlightenment mirrored within the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen; the apologetic romanticism of neighborhood, fraternity and sociality. [5]
It so occurs that barbarity emerges past all predictions – not even Goethe’s poetry or Beethoven’s music had been sufficient to comprise the barbarity of Nazism in Europe’s most cultured nation. That’s the reason it’s essential to have the ability to take into consideration European brutality to be able to overcome it repeatedly and decisively – within the hope that in time it would give solution to civilisation.[6] For it’s exactly from Western Europe, a centre of domination and conquest unprecedented in human historical past, that the cultural antidotes to its personal barbarism have emerged.[7]
In any case, European barbarism can solely be overcome based mostly on its shared values and the attention of the absurdity during which Europeans often discover themselves entangled. As Albert Camus defined, if nothing is smart and if we can not affirm any worth, then every part is permitted and nothing issues. Thus, there may be neither good nor evil and Hitler was neither fallacious nor proper. With out values, every part is equally the identical. And since we expect that nothing is smart, we should conclude that whoever is true is the winner. If Hitler had gained the battle, historical past would have paid tribute to him – and would have justified terror and homicide.[8]
These issues are associated to a perplexity that world society has been confronted with this February 2025: apparently, the post-World Conflict II liberal order collapsed; in different phrases, the paradigm that has guided worldwide relations since 1945 has been struck lifeless – that’s, free commerce, territorial integrity, respect for agreed guidelines, multilateralism. The brand new Trump administration believes that the world order that the US led till yesterday is hindering its ambitions – and that’s the reason you will need to substitute it with one other (dis)order of as but undefined contours. If we wish to be much more rigorous, there appears to be a type of return to the nineteenth century and the rationale of the good empires and their areas of affect.
Students from varied fields of data have tried to establish probably the most vital adjustments on this new (dis)order below development.[9] Firstly, bodily power is coming to dominate and subordinate regulation; in different phrases, there’s a subversion of the concept energy will be moderated by regulation, or by worldwide organisations such because the United Nations, the place states cooperate with one another. The phantasm of relations regulated by worldwide regulation is crumbling, in a return to the “regulation of the strongest” that subverts the regulation – whether or not in Ukraine, Gaza or Greenland.
Secondly, battle is now seen as a enterprise; in different phrases, army energy should generate financial and monetary energy. Because of this, Donald Trump desires Gaza to be was a property improvement – and Ukrainian mineral reserves to be exploited by the US. By the way, this isn’t new, and Vladimir Putin has at all times used battle as a supply of earnings, however now the US can also be becoming a member of on this technique, which thus acquires one other scale in worldwide relations.
Thirdly, worldwide commerce turns into a part of a method of domination; in different phrases, commerce tariffs are used to threaten and discount for army assist. That is one thing that Russia has been experimenting with for a very long time, creating dependencies because it did with the EU when it comes to pure fuel and oil, however now the US can also be becoming a member of on this technique. Now, on this mindset during which solely imperialist pursuits matter, Russia has gone from being a world pariah to a enterprise associate for the US, as if the Russian chief isn’t being accused of battle crimes in worldwide courts. And worse: it’s the court docket that points battle crimes arrest warrants that’s sanctioned by the US.[10]
The burning query is: how does Europe’s defence stand on this state of affairs? Europe has been cornered by its transatlantic associate, who has all of the sudden ceased to be one. Donald Trump is negotiating the way forward for Ukraine in keeping with his personal pursuits and expansionist ambitions – the pursuit of a simply, inclusive and lasting peace in Europe is outwardly the least essential factor on this equation. Furthermore, Trump’s and Putin’s targets are convergent, specifically, to destroy European integration, return to the good empires, and seize the European market – which is probably the most fascinating on the planet as a result of it’s the place buying energy is discovered.
Because of this Trump and Putin’s ideologues try to undermine the credibility of European leaders, as was evident on the 61st Munich Safety Convention, which happened between 14 and 16 February 2025, exactly on the eve of the German parliamentary elections. There are two competing visions of the world, two views in assessing the threats forward – and the Trump administration’s US is not proving to be a reputable associate for the EU. US Vice President JD Vance devoted his speech to criticising Europe for allegedly backtracking on democratic values and never listening to its voters; JD Vance mentioned he was not frightened about both Russia or China when it got here to Europe’s safety, however a couple of “menace from inside”, specifically a (supposed) retreat by the EU relating to a few of its most elementary values, comparable to freedom of expression, that are not shared with the US.
Are Europeans prepared to be lectured on democracy by those that reject election outcomes when they don’t swimsuit them? By those that assist the invasion of the headquarters of democratic establishments in an try to stop a change of energy with out bloodshed? By those that disseminate disinformation, persecute journalists and normalise manifestly unlawful conflicts of curiosity? This might be a distorted conception of freedom of expression, typical of a “state of non-law”.
Within the face of the institutional vandalism that the US is dealing with, Europe should stay calm, it have to be the grown-up within the room. In a quite conciliatory tone, Ursula von der Leyen has urged Europeans to look past phrases – and to attempt to keep away from indignation and clamour. The EU is adapting to this new actuality, reforming to strengthen its defence and competitiveness. Confronted with a change within the guidelines of the sport, the EU has devices to safeguard its financial safety and its pursuits – and right here the inner market performs a central position.
In any case, the EU was not faraway from the negotiating desk for peace in Ukraine as a result of it was irrelevant, however as a result of it was fascinating to the imperialist powers – a goal to be shot and plundered. President Trump himself has verbalised what he thinks of the EU, saying that European integration was fabricated to hurt the US. In response, the European Fee has said that, quite the opposite, the EU has been a boon to the US,[11] because it has facilitated worldwide free commerce, decreased prices for European exporters, and harmonised requirements and rules for all its Member States. In different phrases, US investments within the EU are extremely worthwhile, exactly as a result of European integration has created a big unified market. The European inside market favours industrial transactions, permitting for transatlantic commerce that generates greater than 1.5 trillion euros yearly – making it the biggest bilateral commerce and funding relationship on the planet.
If something, the defence of Europeans with out the US again workplace particularly when it comes to aerial and logistical protection can be an unprecedented problem – and it’ll take braveness for troublesome instances if it seems to be true. Nonetheless, Europeans can not again down, as a result of what’s at stake in Ukraine is what stays of the post-World Conflict II liberal order – the rule of regulation, democracy, human rights – which, with all its weaknesses, has no credible substitute.
Europe’s safety depends upon the end result of the battle in Ukraine. A lot in order that Europeans have contributed 132 billion euros till 31 December 2024 – whether or not in monetary, logistical, humanitarian or army assist – in comparison with 114 billion euros from the USA.[12] Along with army assist, Ukraine’s public administration and economic system should be saved afloat – and it’s principally the Europeans who’ve been doing this. That’s the reason there will be no options for peace in Ukraine that don’t contain Europeans – not least as a result of Europeans will likely be paying for Ukrainian reconstruction with their EU accession.
It’s subsequently essential to give attention to exactly this existential query: how are Europeans to make sure their defence?
The battle that Putin wished to win in three days has now lasted three years – and it did so as a result of the Ukrainians resisted. The EU is grateful to the Ukrainians for having granted it strategic time, i.e. the time Europeans wanted to protect in opposition to additional Putin assaults on former Soviet territories – a speculation of a “full-scale battle” in Europe that the key companies of some European states are contemplating within the close to future.[13]
Because of this, President Zelensky mentioned on the Munich Safety Convention that the European armed forces have to be introduced collectively in order that the way forward for Europe relies upon solely on Europeans and in order that choices about Europe are taken in Europe.[14] And right here the Ukrainian President has so much to boast about, as a result of no different military in Europe has the accrued expertise of the Ukrainian military – and it will be unwise to waste this added worth.
To ensure that EU member states to have the ability to improve their defence spending, there was a name for a suspension of the Stability and Progress Pact; in different phrases, a loosening of European finances guidelines in order that Member States can spend on defence with out breaking EU guidelines and being topic to an extreme deficit process. At present, Member States are obliged to maintain the general public deficit under 3 per cent of GDP (i.e. the distinction between what they generate and what they spend in a 12 months), in addition to retaining public debt under 60 per cent of GDP. In the event that they fail to take action, they might be topic to sanctions, as a result of this impacts on the steadiness of the one foreign money. There has already been a precedent set through the COVID-19 pandemic, when the European Fee suspended the Stability and Progress Pact to permit governments to assist firms and residents in issue.
In March 2025, the European Fee will current its White Paper on Defence, which can set out the priorities for defence funding and the very best methods to finance them. A number of the choices that appear to have already reached a consensus among the many Member States are altering the principles for granting loans from the European Funding Financial institution and European non-public banks. As well as, European family financial savings quantity to virtually 1.4 trillion euros, nicely above the 800 billion euros within the US, however little of this cash is invested in defence, because the sector isn’t thought of sustainable in keeping with EU guidelines. Because of this the European Commissioner for Monetary Companies, Maria Luís Albuquerque has said that the issue isn’t an absence of cash within the EU; it’s there however it’s poorly invested in an excessively fragmented funding market.[15]
A number of member states comparable to France, Spain, Portugal and Italy are additionally calling for the issuing of frequent debt to finance the strengthening of the defence industrial base – in different phrases, for the European Fee to as soon as once more finance itself on the monetary markets on behalf of everybody. The instrument was first launched to spice up the European economic system within the wake of the pandemic – however this resolution has to this point been strongly opposed by among the extra frugal international locations, such because the Netherlands or Germany.
Whatever the financing resolution adopted, and the difficulties imposed on the each day lives of Europeans, they’re lastly required to rise to the problem of their very own defence. That is in order that the world of Europeans isn’t as soon as once more left to the desire to energy – in different phrases, to terror and violence, suffocating us all in its midst. Or, as Albert Camus mentioned, in order that no different Hitler can determine what’s true and what’s not; or that his fact is nice sufficient to be imposed on others. As a result of if nothing is both true or false, if nothing is both good or dangerous, then the rule finally ends up being that of the strongest, the place there may be solely room for masters and slaves. The liberty that Camus urged Europeans to beat consisted exactly in the precise to chorus from mendacity – as a result of solely then would they know the explanations for dwelling and dying.[16]
[1] See Richard Berstein, Why learn Hannah Arendt now? (Polity Press, 2018).
[2] See Hannah Arendt, Sobre a violência, trans. Miguel Serras Pereira (Lisbon: Relógio d’água, 2014).
[3] See Hannah Arendt, Las orígenes del totalitatismo, trans. Guillermo Solana Alonso (Madrid: Taurus, 1998).
[4] See Edgar Morin, Cultura e barbárie europeias, trans. Ana Paula de Viveiros (Lisbon: Instituto Piaget, 2007), 13.
[5] For the identification of the important parts of European civilisation – and the way they’ve been reconfigured over time, see John Hirst, Breve história da Europa (Alfragide: Dom Quixote, 2020).
[6] See Edgar Morin, Cultura e barbárie europeias, 28-37.
[7] Morin, Cultura e barbárie europeias, 40. On this subject, see Alessandra Silveira and Maria Inês Costa, “Os direitos humanos numa Europa à procura de antídotos culturais contra a barbárie”, in Liber Amicorum Benedita MacCrorie, vol. I, ed. Sofia Pinto Oliveira and Patrícia Jerónimo (Braga: UMinho Editora, 2022).
[8] See Albert Camus, Conferências e discursos (1937-1958), trans. Maria Etelvina Santos (Porto: Livros do Brasil, 2022).
[9] On this subject see António José Telo, “Janela International”, RTP Play, season 6, episode 8, 21 February 2025, https://www.rtp.pt/play/p14327/e831809/janela-global.
[10] Euronews with AP, “Trump indicators order imposing sanctions on Worldwide Legal Court docket over investigations of Israel”, Euronews, 6 February 2025, https://www.euronews.com/2025/02/06/trump-signs-order-imposing-sanctions-on-international-criminal-court-over-investigations-o.
[11] António Assis Teixeira, «União Europeia “tem sido uma bênção para os Estados Unidos” mas “reagirá com firmeza e de imediato” contra as tarifas anunciadas por Trump», CNN Portugal, 26 February 2025, https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/uniao-europeia/donald-trump/uniao-europeia-tem-sido-uma-bencao-para-os-estados-unidos-mas-reagira-com-firmeza-e-de-imediato-contra-as-tarifas-anunciadas-por-trump/20250226/67bf8ba6d34ef72ee442cf45.
[12] Kiel Institute for the World Financial system, “Ukraine assist after 3 years of battle: Support flows stay low however regular – Shift in the direction of weapons procurement”, Information, 14 February 2025, https://www.ifw-kiel.de/publications/information/ukraine-support-after-3-years-of-war-aid-flows-remain-low-but-steady-shift-towards-weapons-procurement/. See, particularly, Ukraine Assist Tracker.
[13] Pedro Zagacho Gonçalves, “Dinamarca alerta que Rússia pode iniciar grande guerra na Europa dentro de cinco anos”, Government Digest, 11 February 2025, https://executivedigest.sapo.pt/noticias/dinamarca-alerta-que-russia-pode-iniciar-grande-guerra-na-europa-dentro-de-cinco-anos/.
[14] Sasha Vakulina, “Zelenskyy requires creation of ‘armed forces of Europe’ at Munich convention”, Euronews, 15 February 2025, https://www.euronews.com/2025/02/15/amid-uncertainy-over-us-policy-on-ukraine-zelenskyy-says-its-time-for-an-armed-forces-of-e.
[15] Peggy Corlin & Robert Hodgson, Cynthia Kroet, Paula Soler, Gregoire Lory, “EU Fee goals to simplify its solution to future progress”, Euronews, 29 January 2025, https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/01/29/eu-commission-aims-to-simplify-its-way-to-future-growth.
[16] Albert Camus, Conferências e discursos (1937-1958).
Image credit score: by Dušan Cvetanović on pexels.com.
